Salam, sorry to interject but here are my findings:
Thank-you for your reply. Peace be upon you too.
1) Where in the Koran (Quran) does it specify a lunar calendar?
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ about the phases of the moon. Say, “They are a means for people to determine time and pilgrimage.” Righteousness is not in entering your houses from the back doors. Rather, righteousness is to be mindful ˹of Allah˺. So enter your homes through their ˹proper˺ doors, and be mindful of Allah so you may be successful.
2:189
Would you consider this to be a command to keep a lunar calendar though? A lunar calendar loses 11-12 days every year, which means every three years it's behind an entire month, and every 8-9 years it's behind an entire season.
How could such a faulty calendar, based on the lesser, reflected light, possibly be considered to be of divine origin? Please see the same verse again, provided with cross-references from the Old and New Covenants, to assist in making sense of it.
Sura 2:189. They ask thee concerning the New Moons (
Isa. 1:13-18). Say: "They are but signs to mark fixed periods of time in (the affairs of) men, and for their pilgrimage. It is no virtue if ye enter your houses from the back (
John 10:1-18): it is virtue if ye fear God (
Matt. 10:28). Enter houses through the proper doors (
Matt. 7:13-14): and fear God: that ye may prosper."
He is the One Who made the sun a radiant source and the moon a reflected light, with precisely ordained phases, so that you may know the number of years and calculation ˹of time˺. Allah did not create all this except for a purpose. He makes the signs clear for people of knowledge.
10:5
Please see
the Book of Enoch for the explanation of this verse/ayat, and the Holy Calendar.
Indeed, the number of months ordained by Allah is twelve—in Allah’s Record since the day He created the heavens and the earth—of which four are sacred. That is the Right Way. So do not wrong one another during these months. And together fight the polytheists as they fight against you together. And know that Allah is with those mindful ˹of Him˺.
9:36
There are 12 months in the current solar calendar as well, which doesn't lose time every year. Is it not interesting that the sacred annual "feasts" (fasts) God gave us in His Law [Passover & the F(e)ast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks leading up to Pentecost, and the Day of Atonement followed by the F(e)ast of Tabernacles] occur in months 1, 2, 3 and 7 (four of the twelve months)?
Instinctively you would use the sun to determine the day (sundails and casting shadows to show the hour), the moon to determine the month and the seasons for the year. It was the only way to measure time.
Logically, one would use the sun to determine both the time of day and the calendar year. It shouldn't take someone very long at all to find out that a moon based calendar that loses an entire season in less than a decade doesn't work to determine the seasons of the year or a full year's time.
2) Where in the Koran does it specify how Ramadan is to be performed?
3) Where in the Koran does it specify the make-up date for those who might miss it due to illness or journey?
˹Fast a˺ prescribed number of days. But whoever of you is ill or on a journey, then ˹let them fast˺ an equal number of days ˹after Ramaḍân˺. For those who can only fast with extreme difficulty, compensation can be made by feeding a needy person ˹for every day not fasted˺. But whoever volunteers to give more, it is better for them. And to fast is better for you, if only you knew.
2:184
Ramaḍân is the month in which the Quran was revealed as a guide for humanity with clear proofs of guidance and the standard ˹to distinguish between right and wrong˺. So whoever is present this month, let them fast. But whoever is ill or on a journey, then ˹let them fast˺ an equal number of days ˹after Ramaḍân˺. Allah intends ease for you, not hardship, so that you may complete the prescribed period and proclaim the greatness of Allah for guiding you, and perhaps you will be grateful.
2:185
It has been made permissible for you to be intimate with your wives during the nights preceding the fast. Your spouses are a garment for you as you are for them. Allah knows that you were deceiving yourselves. So He has accepted your repentance and pardoned you. So now you may be intimate with them and seek what Allah has prescribed for you. ˹You may˺ eat and drink until you see the light of dawn breaking the darkness of night, then complete the fast until nightfall. Do not be intimate with your spouses while you are meditating in the mosques. These are the limits set by Allah, so do not exceed them. This is how Allah makes His revelations clear to people, so they may become mindful ˹of Him˺.
2:187
I found these verses which tells us how to fast and how to make up for lost days. There's also an option to feed a needy person if you can't make those days up.
The following passage (which includes some of the verses you've cited above) is from the Yusuf Ali translation of the 1922 Hafs Arabic version (boldface added for emphasis):
Sura 2:183-185
2:183. O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you
as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint,-
2:184. (Fasting) for a fixed number of days;
but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed number (Should be made up) from days later. For those who can do it (With hardship), is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. But he that will give more, of his own free will,- it is better for him. And it is better for you that ye fast, if ye only knew.
2:185. Ramadhan is the (month) in which was sent down the Qur'an, as a guide to mankind, also clear (Signs) for guidance and judgment (Between right and wrong). So every one of you who is present (at his home) during that month should spend it in fasting,
but if any one is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed period (Should be made up) by days later. Allah intends every facility for you; He does not want to put to difficulties. (He wants you) to complete the prescribed period, and to glorify Him in that
He has guided you; and perchance ye shall be grateful.
If we want to see how fasting was prescribed to those before us, we need only look in Leviticus 23, from The Law that God gave us through His Prophet and Servant Moses. Please see the excerpt below regarding the Passover, to illustrate how make the point about the days to be made up later.
Leviticus 23:4
23:4
These [are] the Feasts of the "I AM", [even] holy convocations, which ye shall proclaim in their seasons.
23:5
In the fourteenth [day] of the FIRST month at evening [is] the "I AM"'s Passover.
23:6 And on the fifteenth day of the same month [is] the Feast (Fast) of Unleavened Bread unto the "I AM": seven days ye must eat unleavened bread.
Numbers 9:9-13
9:9 And the "I AM" spoke unto Moses, saying,
9:10 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If any man of you or of your posterity shall be unclean by reason of a dead body,
or [be] in a journey afar off, yet he shall keep The Passover unto the "I AM".
9:11
The fourteenth day of the SECOND month at even they shall keep it, [and] eat it with unleavened bread and bitter [herbs].
9:12 They shall leave none of it unto the morning, nor break any bone of it: according to all the Ordinances of The Passover they shall keep it.
9:13 But the man that [is] clean, and is not in a journey, and refuseth to keep The Passover, even the same soul shall be cut off from among his people: because he brought not the offering of the "I AM" in His appointed season, that man shall bear his sin.
So God has Commanded us to keep The Passover and the feast/fast of unleavened bread beginning on the 14th day of the
FIRST month of the year according to His Holy Calendar unless we are unclean or on a journey, with the make-up time being exactly one month later, on the 14th day of the
SECOND month of the year.
This is why the Koran Commands us so many times to read, study and put into practice what it says in The Law and the Gospel (e.g. Suras
2:53,
2:87-93,
3:1-3,
3:48-50,
4:54,
5:46-50,
6:91-92,
6:154-157,
7:157,
9:111,
11:17,
15:9-10,
17:2-4,
21:48,
23:20,
23:49,
25:35,
28:1-3,
32:23,
35:25-32,
37:117,
40:53,
40:70,
41:45,
42:14-17,
45:16,
46:12,
46:30,
48:29,
53:36-47,
57:25-29,
61:6,
78:2).
And also why there are
zero references in the Koran to reading the hadith or sirah, both of which are condemned throughout Scripture (see
Deut. 4:2,
12:8,
12:32,
Matt. 15:3,
9,
Sura 5:4).
